Intrroduction to Rhetoric, Rhetoric and Grammar and Functions of Rhetoric
Rhetoric:
The word rhetoric comes from the Greek word rhetor meaning a public speaker. In ancient Greece and Rome oratory was a part of rhetoric, the art of speaking before the public in a persuasive manner. Greek and Roman youths who aspired to hold public offices had to learn rhetoric well since they were frequently required to persuade, convince, move or impress others through their speeches. To Aristotle rhetoric was the art of 'discovering and applying all the possible means of persuasion on any subject'. In course of time it was extended from speech to writing as well. This change indicates that a good composition should exhibit some qualities that are aimed at moving the feelings of others, in addition to grammatical accuracy.
In Greece, schools were founded to impart training to learners on this subject. Aristotle and Quintilion discussed the theory of rhetoric. This subject, with definite rules and models, was also emphasized in the education of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, though it largely remained confined to the Church.
According to Locke rhetoric was 'the art of speaking with propriety, elegance and force'. Now it means 'the whole art of elegant and effective composition, whether spoken or written'. Smith rightly regards rhetoric as 'the art of clear and effective use of language' written or spoken, as a vehicle for the communication of ideas.
Rhetoric and Grammar:
Both rhetoric and grammar are concerned with rules of composition and order of words in a sentence. Yet their aims are different. While grammar aims at correctness of expression, rhetoric, in addition to this, aims at making the expression beautiful and forceful. An expression may be grammatically correct; still it may not be clear or graceful. Rhetoric removes this deficiency and makes one's composition perfect. Herein lies the superiority of rhetoric over grammar.
Functions of Rhetoric:
There are two misconceptions as regards the use of rhetoric. The first is that ordinary persons use only literal language and the use of thetoric lies beyond their scope. The second is that the study of rhetoric is futile since a user of rhetoric, whether in speech or writing, does so by virtue of his natural gift and inborn power, and not by any acquired quality. In defence against the first we may point out that it is a widely observed fact that even ordinary persons use, no matter whether consciously or unconsciously, a bit of rhetoric in their daily speech, particularly when they try to express their thoughts forcefully. In defence against the second we may say that though the study of rhetoric will not turn everyone into a fine orator or an accomplished author, it will certainly help a man to use his natural power to the greatest advantage, enkindling within him an urge to add to his speech or writing both beauty and force to which he was hitherto almost unconscious.
Thus, it cannot be denied that the study of rhetoric is helpful to students and teachers, orators and authors, public and publicists, as it enables them to express their thoughts and ideas neatly, elegantly and effectively. In conclusion, therefore, we may say that the function of rhetoric is to emplo mploy such means whereby the effect of one's words on another's mind can be left striking and lasting.
Figures:
Our thoughts and ideas can be expressed plainly or elegantly. For plain expression we may use literal language. For memorable and effective expression, however, we must use figurative language. Figures are, thus, devices with the help of which we make our expre-ssion impressive and beautiful. They are the means wherewith we embellish our style.
Since classical times figures have been divided into two kinds: (a) Figures of thought or tropes in which 'words are used in a way that effects a decided change or extension in their standard meaning'; and (b) Figures of speech or rhetorical figures in which 'the departure from standard usage is not primarily in the meaning but in the order and rhetorical effect of the words'. This distinction is not a sharp one, for which modern rhetoricians do not recognize this type of classification. They rather consider all figures falling under these two classes simply as figures of speech and group them in different classes according to different principles.
Figures of Speech:
A figure of speech (the word figure, coming from Latin figura meaning 'the shape of an object', from which developed its secondary sense 'something remarkable') is a form of expression which departs from the plain way of expressing an idea, and, for emotional or literary effect, says more or less than what is strictly necessary. Bain observes: 'A figure of speech is a deviation from the plain and ordi-nary way of speaking, for the sake of greater effect.' It is thus a deviation from the standard (or literal) meaning, usage and word-order. A figure of speech, in the words of Bain, is 'a form of expre-ssion which deviates from plain and straightforward statement, and, for literary effect, says more or less than the bare necessities of communication demand'. Echoing the same idea Nichol says that figures imply words or phrases that 'are used in a sense different from that generally assigned to them'.
We shall now establish what we have stated above through some examples. In the sentence 'And Brutus is an honourable man' the word 'honourable' conveys a sense which is quite contrary from its literal sense. In 'He is the lion of his family the word 'lion' is used in a figurative sense. Again, there is a deviation from the usual word-order in 'Much have I travelled in the realms of gold.' All these show that if plain expressions would have served the purpose, there would have been no necessity to cause such deviations. Their use, therefore, clearly shows how necessary figures are to clothe an idea with a rich and ornamental dress so that it may look gaudy and gorgeous, interesting and impressive. Besides performing this basic function they also stimulate our mind by awakening fresh associations. Without them, not even the, speech or writing of masterminds would be able to avoid triteness and monotony.
Figures of speech are used in prose and poetry. They have been used by orators and authors since earliest times. It is, however, baseless to think them to be their sole property, for they are really 'part of the warp and woof of everybody's speech'. They are aptly compared to ornaments, and, like ornaments, they should be used with discretion, for just as too many ornaments hide the beauty of their user, so too much application of figures also mars a practitioner style and renders his composition ugly and unimpressive.
Classification of Figures of Speech:
It is possible to classify figures of speech according to certain principles, although rigidity in this matter is neither possible nor desirable. For a figure may fall into one class, still there is nothing to prevent it from falling into another if a different criterion is applied. We here group all the figures into the following seven classes:
(i) Figures based on Similarity,
(ii) Figures based on Difference,
(iii) Figures based on Association,
(iv) Figures based on Imagination,
(v) Figures based on Indirectness,
(vi) Figures based on Sound and
(vii) Figures based on Construction.
All these figures embellish the language and serve to make the expressions elegant and effective, though these are done not in one but various ways.
Illustrations of Each Class of Figures:
Our idea about the classification of figures will be clearer if we explain each class with an example of its own.
In 'Figures based on Similarity' an impressive statement is made by pointing the sameness that exists between two different objects. Thus, in the example 'My love is a red, red rose' similarity between the beloved and the rose in point of beauty is finely indicated by an implied comparison between them.
In 'Figures based on Difference' an idea is emphasized by showing the difference between two things. Thus, in 'Art is long, life is short two contrary ideas (i.e., durability of art and transitoriness of life) are placed in a balanced form for the sake of emphasis.
In 'Figures based on Association' a particular thing is indicated by mentioning something associated with it. Thus, when we say "The pen is mightier than the sword', we at once realize that 'the pen' stands for writers, while 'the sword' represents soldiers.
In 'Figures based on Imagination' we notice a play of the imagination. Thus, in the example 'Frailty, thy name is woman' we note how, by the pressure of imagination, even an abstract idea (i.e. 'Frailty') is considered to be a living being and addressed accordingly.
In 'Figures based on Indirectness' some facts are presented not in a straight but indirect way. Thus, icebergs, instead of being so called, are described as 'moving isles of winter'.
In "Figures based on Sound' the sounds of words are made to echo their sense. Thus, in the example 'Cast a longing lingering look behind' a sense of delay is conveyed through the repetition of the 'l' sound.
Finally, in 'Figures based on Construction' the effect rests on the suitable construction of sentences. Thus, in the example 'He is a man of no mean birth' a deliberate understatement is made to create a much stronger effect.
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